Modern agriculture in the United States bears little resemblance to farming practices from a century ago. For the past fifty years U.S. agriculture has been increasingly characterized by higher crop yields, a marked decrease in the number of farmers and increased reliance on "inputs" such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides and machinery. More recently, developments in plant genetics have also had a heavy impact on agriculture. Such changes in agriculture characterize the modernist ideal of gaining mastery over nature. Since the Enlightenment, human progress has been measured by our ability to improve the world around us by reshaping what nature has given us. Though modernist achievements make present life-styles possible, environmental and social crises which we now face bring into question the ultimate success of this way of interacting with the natural world.
Like all other types of production, agriculture has been greatly altered by three centuries of capitalism, particularly during the past fifty years. Of course, the origins of the capitalist political economy began with the transformation of crops into commodities. In a capitalist economy, labor, land and technology become commodities which can be bought and sold in the market-place. In order to make a profit, the capitalist strives to minimize production costs by maximizing efficiency. This process of seeking to continually improve efficiency and productivity is known as rationalization.
The social theorist, Max Weber (1864-1920) advanced the term "rationalization" with the above definition, and saw it as an overarching force in capitalism. He noticed that a rationalized approach to all spheres of life stemmed from what he called "the capitalist ethic." Weber describes this key ethic in the following passage:
Man is dominated by the making of money, by acquisition as the ultimate purpose of his life. Economic acquisition is no longer subordinated to man as the means for the satisfaction of his material needs... The earning of money within the modern economic order is, so long as it is done legally, the result and the expression of virtue and proficiency in a calling...Capitalists wishing to realize full economic success must constantly strive to make their endeavors efficient and therefore profitable. Using time, resources, money and labor efficiently necessitates ever increasing degrees of control over the production process.
Assembly line production is a classic example of rationalization. In this rationalized division of labor no aspect of the production process is left to chance. The process begins by breaking the activity down into subdivided and mechanized tasks. By assigning each worker a repetitive task that can be done very quickly, goods are produced in a speedy and systematic fashion. Rationalization is a dynamic process, requiring continuous revision as new technologies are developed to increase efficiency.
Historically, the unique characteristics of agriculture made it resistant to rationalization. Unlike other types of production, agriculture is centered around living plants and animals which could not easily be modified or controlled. Whereas workers in a factory can be urged to labor more intensively, thus speeding production, crops mature on a seasonal time-table. Furthermore, it is difficult to ensure optimal growing conditions for crops. Disease, unfavorable weather conditions and predators may damage or kill crops and livestock. The continuous rationalization of production has been heretofore hindered by the biological, seasonal and environmental constraints of agriculture.
Unlike automobiles, barbie dolls and cellular phones, most agricultural commodities are perishable and cannot simply be stored in a warehouse during unfavorable market conditions. If a farmer cannot find a buyer for her crop she incurs a complete financial loss. Even if she can sell what she produces, agricultural commodities do not draw particularly high prices. Although demand remains steady, consumers rarely buy excess food. They are satisfied with purchasing approximately as much as they can eat and feel uncomfortable wasting food. In contrast, consumers are eager to accumulate non-perishable commodities such as computers, cars, clothing etc.
Land, the most important input in agriculture, cannot be manufactured, thus placing parameters on the spatial expansion of agriculture. If a farmer wishes to cultivate a larger acreage, he must arrange a land purchase from neighbors, rather than simply using capital to manufacture more land.
The above mentioned factors once discouraged capitalist firms from investing in agriculture as readily as they might in other industries. However, recent changes in agriculture represent a vigorous effort to overcome these limitations via rationalization. In the sections below I seek to address the following questions: How is rationalized production manifested in agricultural practice? What are the impacts of rationalizing a type of production which is directly based on living organisms?
Where Have all the Farmers Gone?
Farmers and the "Agri-business Chain"
Reducing Risk Through Pest Control
Increasing Yields With Chemical Fertilizers
Genetic Engineering and Agriculture